The Complicated History of National Parks—And What We Can Do About It
Written by: Sophia Hernandez
Edited and contributed to by: Nicole Bowen
Touted as one of America’s “greatest ideas”, the National Park System was established in 1872 with the purpose of creating an untouched wilderness that the United States could enjoy for generations to come. In the years following, the influence of National Parks drove partnering organizations to bring federal conservation laws to court¹, and establish hundreds of protected areas around the 3.8 million square miles of land in the US. The idealistic foundation of National Parks inspired numerous environmental activists and organizations to fight for what they believed in—and win. Still, the one dimensional approach of the original founders forced entire populations off the land they called home, and has defined climate activism for over 150 years. In recent decades, the National Park System has made conscious efforts to revive the forgotten Indigenous history of current National Parks. The impact of keeping history erased has had significant effects; however, conservation efforts have been enacted in recent years to counter this. Are they doing enough to reverse the damage?
The History
National Parks began as an idea formulated in 1872 by US President Theodore Roosevelt and his colleague John Muir². Until the beginning of the 20th century, the environment was typically thought of as something to be conquered, controlled, or exploited in order to improve quality of life. The rapid uptick of industrialization in the workforce reinforced this; the US workforce grew by 559% from 1800-1860 as factories began to acquire more workers³. Whilst society was becoming increasingly focused in industry, visionaries like Roosevelt and Muir sought to preserve natural landscapes for future generations.
Yellowstone
National Park Service. Jackson drawing showing Nez Perce Village. https://www.nps.gov/articles/archeology-nez-perce-national-historic-trail.htm
The first National Park was established in 1872 in Montana, known as Yellowstone National Park. It was sought out to curate the idea of untouched wilderness; a world that had not been tainted by human interaction⁴. In a more brutal reality, these lands were once inhabited by Indigenous Americans, and were emptied by military and governmental force⁵. As many as ten tribes were living on Yellowstone’s land before the Park’s establishment, including the Crow, Blackfeet, and Nez Perce⁶. “In 1877 the Nimiipuu (Nez Perce) were driven off their lands in Northeast Oregon to a reservation in Idaho. In an attempt to escape the 2,000 strong U.S. Army forces pursuing them, the group, led by Chief Joseph, fled through Yellowstone National Park, and eventually surrendered in Montana. A court decision in 1896 nullified off-reservation hunting treaty rights for the Indigenous peoples of the area, further preventing Native peoples from practicing subsistence use of the national park and leaving them to starve from insufficient rations on reservations.”⁷
Glacier
National Park Service. (2020, November). Three Bears chief and other tribal leaders met with NPS Director Newton B Dury between 1940 and 1951. https://smea.uw.edu/currents/ethnic-cleansing-and-continued-indigenous-erasure-within-the-national-park-service/
The Blackfeet Nation faced a similar fate as the Nez Perce at Yellowstone, being coerced into selling their land. The Blackfeet Nation once inhabited the area where Glacier National Park is now located, living off the land as hunter-gatherers for hundreds of years.⁸ In 1895, as National Parks were beginning to be established, the US government pressured the Blackfeet into selling their land for the sake of conservation⁹. Many members were hesitant and disagreed; those who did approve thought of the sale as something closer to a lease.¹⁰ In addition, members of the Blackfeet Nation who did agree only permitted the sale under explicit allowance for hunting and gathering rights in the territory¹¹. Upon the park’s opening in 1910, hunting-gathering rights were nullified¹², and the Blackfeet lost an integral part of their livelihoods.
Shenandoah
James Madison University Libraries. (2020, December). The Lamb Family, Greene County, Virginia. https://www.lib.jmu.edu/feature-friday-borg/.
Shenandoah National Park is a lesser known example of erasure within National Parks. In the 1930s, the state of Virginia’s government pieced together Shenandoah National Park from over 3,000 miles of land¹³, eager to preserve the Appalachian landscape. To do so, over 500 families needed to be relocated; middle and upper class society considered their displacement a ‘humanitarian act’¹⁴, as Appalachians were portrayed as unintelligent and outdated. Interestingly, the universal presence of modern appliances, toys, and even cars were present, strongly suggesting that the ‘simple’ lifestyle of Appalachians portrayed by promoters of the park was untrue¹⁵. However, park promoters photographed and exploited poorer areas of the several hollows residents lived in, and ultimately gained the influence to relocate the families and create the park
The Solutions
Stewardship
David M Porter. (2019, December) October Landscape Yellowstone National Park. https://www.google.com/url
David Treuer, a professor and member of the Ojibwe, which is a tribe in Minnesota, interviewed with The Atlantic to discuss the origins and running of National Parks, and how we can improve them. He urges us to consider stewardship, or the responsible use and protection of the natural environment through conservation and sustainable practices to enhance ecosystem resilience and human well-being”¹⁶.
““You’re going to be able to look at {National Parks} as not just a natural wonder, but you’ll be able to look at it as though you’re looking at the face of this country with a kind of honesty—impossible if we continue business as usual.”¹⁸ ”
As Treuer argues, the connection Indigenous people have to their land is indisputable. He reflects on his childhood, noting how he and his mother often practiced the Ojibwe tradition of harvesting wild rice²⁰. While an uncomfortable ordeal, the act taught Treuer about the importance of knowing about the land around you, and being able to work with it for both your wellbeing and maintenance of the area. Indigenous stewardship of National Parks is Treuer’s goal, as the environment and humankind aren’t exclusive; they are interconnected.
Education
As long as history is taught, it cannot be forgotten. That’s what the National Park System is considering when updating their websites and park exhibits.
Parks such as Grand Canyon, Voyagers, and Badlands National Park all have extensive connections to Indigenous Americans. With this in mind, they have all taken action to create exhibits that educate visitors on Indigenous traditions/influence and reconstruct Indigenous dwellings²¹ for public view. Additionally, these parks educate on the different ways Indigenous people of the area worked to maintain their environments.
As individuals, we can become educated by learning about the National Parks and Monuments around us: discovering the history behind them may help us gain a better understanding of the environment around us and emphasize the importance of protecting it.
We can also educate our leaders. Often, it is the contributions of everyday individuals that drive leadership to change. For any questions or recommendations for National Parks, Monuments, or Historical Sites, you can contact the National Park Service at https://www.nps.gov/index.htm or make a call to a local leader, such as a mayor or a state/province official.
Throughout many historical conservation areas and monuments, Indigenous contributions and history are not a part of the conversation. But we as individuals, and a community, have the power to change that.
This is further discussed in:
Reference 1
University of Michigan. (2021). National Parks and the 1964 Wilderness Act · Exhibit · Give Earth a Chance: Environmental Activism in Michigan. [online] Available at: https://michiganintheworld.history.lsa.umich.edu/environmentalism/exhibits/show/main_exhibit/origins/wilderness-act.
Reference 2
Darian-Smith, E. (2010). Environmental Law and Native American Law. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 6(1), pp.359–386. doi:https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-102209-152820
Reference 3
Walsh, M., Gallman, R.E. and Wallis, J.J. (1994). American Economic Growth and Standards of Living before the Civil War. The Economic History Review, 47(3), p.633. doi:https://doi.org/10.2307/2597614.
Reference 4, 5, 6, and 7
Klein, S. (2020). Ethnic Cleansing and Continued Indigenous Erasure within the National Park Service. [online] School of Marine and Environmental Affairs. Available at: https://smea.uw.edu/currents/ethnic-cleansing-and-continued-indigenous-erasure-within-the-national-park-service/.
Reference 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12
Brulliard, N. (2020). This Land Is Their Land. [online] National Parks Conservation Association. Available at: https://www.npca.org/articles/2742-this-land-is-their-land
Reference 13, 14, and 15
National Park Service (2022) The Displaced: Shenandoah National Park National Park Virginia. Available at: https://www.nps.gov/shen/learn/historyculture/displaced
Reference 16 and 21
National Geographic Society (2025) Conservation National Geographic Education. Available at: https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/conservation-encyclopedic/
Reference 17, 18, 19, and 20
The Atlantic. (2021). Podcast: The Problem With America’s National Parks. [online] Available at: https://www.theatlantic.com/podcasts/archive/2021/04/national-parks-native-americans/618574/.