The Consequences of Water Scarcity & Drought in the MENA Region
In recent decades, the issue of water scarcity and droughts as a result of the climate crisis has increased and severely impacted the lives of individuals around the world. Rising temperatures, low rainfall, and decreased water quality as a result of pollution are some of the effects climate change has had on people's ability to acquire water for consumption and agricultural purposes. The inability to obtain one of the most vital resources has been of great concern throughout the Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) region. Water scarcity and persistent droughts has not only impacted dietary needs, but has had economic impacts on MENA states that rely on agriculture to sustain their economy. Because of this, many states throughout the region have undergone social, political, and economic instability. Citizens have begun to mobilize, protest, and impose political pressure on their leaders to prompt them to take action on behalf of this issue. The intersection of climate change, foreign policy, and regional stability is demonstrated in the issue of water scarcity and drought, which has transformed the lives of those residing in the MENA region.
Photographer Jeremy Bishop ,2016, via www.unsplash.com
What is water scarcity? What are droughts?
Water scarcity is defined as “ a lack of sufficient clean water to meet daily demands” (cfr.org), referring to the requirement of clean water for hygiene and consumption purposes. The driving force to a struggle in the ability to utilize water for daily necessity is linked to “pollution, agricultural use, poor infrastructure, natural disasters, and population growth” (worldwildlifefund.org). Water scarcity is a matter that is worsening due to climate change and minimal political priority placed upon maintaining sustainable access to clean water. Due to rising temperatures, “the atmosphere expands, enabling the air to suck up and retain more moisture during the evaporation stage of the water cycle”(education.cfr.org), resulting in more regions becoming increasingly “drier and arid over time” (education.cfr.org). A contributor to the continuity of water scarcity is droughts, which are defined as “a protracted period of deficient precipitation resulting in extensive damage to crops, and a consequential loss of yield” (drought.unl.edu). This phenomenon of droughts plays a role in individual ability to carry out necessary tasks, as minimal rainwater can prevent agriculturally dependent communities from being able to maintain a living, and therefore, their life.
History of water scarcity in the MENA region
In the middle of the 20th century, the MENA region was undergoing a surge in their population, “from 1950-2000, the population in the region quadrupled from around 100 million to 380 million”(features.csis.org). From 1960-2000, Iraq’s population increased from “7 million to 23 million”, Syria “4 million to 16 million”. (features.csis.org), this increased population led to a higher demand for water resources and the need to irrigate land. Hectares of irrigated land throughout the time frame of 1950-1960 exploded. For Iraq “1250 hectares to 3525 hectares”, Yemen “207 hectares to 680 hectares”, and Syria “558 hectares to 1310 hectares”(features.csis.org). To account for the increased economic activity as a result of an increased population and a demand for irrigation to land, political leaders in the regions carried out dam initiatives. This is the case for Syria, who established an agreement over the Yarmouk river.
Photographer Justin Wilkens ,2022, via www.unsplash.com
The Yarmouk River “is a tributary river to the Jordan River and therefore forms part of the Jordan System, which compromises Israel, Syria, Jordan and Lebanon” (climate-diplomacy.org). During this time, these countries had disputes and varying opinions on water management for the river, in order to settle these disputes “Jordan and Syria signed a bilateral agreement in 1953” (climate diplomacy.org). This led to the mutual agreement to build dams along the river to make the provision of water for irrigation more feasible. This agreement underwent revisions in 1987, which mandated “Jordan bear all the costs related to the dam from planning to maintenance..also bound Syria to release 208 million cubic meters of water per year to Jordan” (climate-diplomacy.org). Additional revisions were made to this in 2003, and in that year, “Jordan and Syria reached a final agreement on the dam. This dam facilitated water storage from the river to sustain the agricultural economic sector within both of these states. The mutual benefit from the establishment of this dam only lasted for a short period time as a result of overuse and alleged abuse of this agreement by Syria, as “Syria refused to provide Jordan with the water share agreement outlined in the 1987 treaty”, impacting Jordanian citizens with sufficient access to water for civilian and economic purposes. Eventually, this sufficient water access expanded to other countries that relied on Jordan, transforming the issue and encouraging other governments to take similar action against their own citizens.
Intersection of political action and an increased water scarcity
Water scarcity and droughts are not exclusively a symptom of the climate crisis. Even so, they are directly linked to poor environmental and agricultural policies by political leaders and illegitimate political regimes throughout the MENA region. In the state of Syria, former President Hafez al-Assad “initiated policies to further increase agricultural production, including land redistribution and irrigation projects, quota systems, and subsidies for diesel fuel to garner support to rural constituents” (pnas.org). These environmental and agricultural policies compromised Syria’s water volume by overusing a limited amount of land and water. Severe repercussions followed within the agricultural sector and increased the nation’s susceptibility to drought. In Syria, “two-thirds of the cultivated land in Syria is rain fed but the remainder relies upon irrigation and groundwater”(pnas.org). The depletion of groundwater and ability to continue using irrigation systems interrupts the process of farming and other agricultural practices, and reduces the quality of life for those who rely on income from the crops they grow and sell. Roughly 46% of the Syrian population is dependent on farming as a way to make a living. Observing their President carry out policy that reflects an apathy to their way of life planted the seed that sprouted the ongoing civil uprising we see today.
Alongside the careless and unsustainable environmental policies carried about the Assad-Regime, there is another state in the MENA region whose citizens find themselves struggling to access one of the most basic resources. This is the country of Yemen, who in 2014 had their government overtaken by the aggressive pursuit of the Houthi rebels. The Houthis are a Shiite extremist Islamic organization within Yemen. Dissatisfied with the religious and political beliefs of the leadership system in 2014, Houthis launched an attack that resulted in the overthrowing of the government. They occupy the majority of northern Yemen, and since occupying political and social power within their territory have committed serious actions that have hindered the quality of life for Yemeni citizens. In the city of Taizz, the Houthi regime has implemented a blockade on civilians which includes Taizz accessibility to water. The city maintains its control by the legitimate government of Yemen, and has been attempting to send aid including water to these citizens. However, these efforts have been challenged by the Houthi regime. Resulting in innocent people not being able to acquire a resource they are entitled to, and dependent on for survival.
These actions by the Former Syrian President Hafez al Assad, and the Houthi regime expand the attributions of water scarcity and drought, illustrating how man made environmental policies and political action increase individuals' vulnerability to water scarcity and drought. Leaders around the globe continue to exacerbate this issue; sometimes even without realizing it. Though most countries don’t intend to limit such a drastic source of survival from their citizens, the accomplishment of it has driven citizens to stand up for what founded their very existence: basic rights.
Civil uprising and political instability
One of the most fundamental parts of being able to establish a life for oneself and their family is directly linked to their status of employment and maintaining a constant stream of income. However, what happens when individuals cannot provide for themselves or their children? What does one do when the very government tasked with the responsibility of promoting the welfare of its people reduces their ability to survive? The response can be seen in a wave of mobilization of citizens and civil unrest that took the MENA region by storm. A notable case of civilians acting on behalf of their grievances with their government failing to fulfill their responsibilities is Syria. In 2011, Syrians took to the streets to protest an oppressive, corrupt, and impassive government. These protests were unabashed demonstrations of dissatisfaction with the government and a form of emotional release from years of internalized anger, due to unjust treatment at the hands of their government. These protests unfortunately were met with strong opposition and violence by the Syrian government. The government unleashed military forces to disperse these protesters and discourage future demonstrations of government disapproval. This alongside other factors led to the ongoing Syrian civil war, citizens are engaged in military combat against their own government for liberation from a restrictive government. They are fighting to overthrow a regime that subjected them to poor economic conditions and an inability to have abundant access to life’s most necessary resource. Syria, now marked by civil unrest and internal turmoil is an example of the consequences when a government displays little regard for the lives and futures of its very own.
Photographer asamw ,2022, via www.unsplash.com
Economic impact
A state’s stability being compromised as a result of the impact water scarcity and drought causes on the lives of their citizens is not the only consequence of this pressing environmental issue. The country itself is not immune to the circumstances it forces its citizens to endure, but finds their own ability to economically thrive is at risk. Close to 45% of the economy of all countries in the MENA region are dependent on the agricultural sector. The implication being the government's purse is slowly being retracted as citizens become unable to amass revenue from the selling of crops and other agricultural goods. This has a dual effect internally and externally for a country; their status on the international stage as an influential actor is hindered due to low economic ability, internal investment in other aspects of one’s country is less feasible with a smaller budget. Displaying how all parties regardless of power or title suffer due to environmental crises.
Conclusion
The issue of water scarcity and droughts is an environmental issue that has radically transformed the lives of those residing in the MENA region. Many of those residing in the Middle East find themselves struggling to access and utilize one of the most integral resources to human viability. This difficulty is linked to both political and environmental factors. Increased global temperatures and pollution reduces the quantity and quality of water, and unsustainable environmental policies and restrictions by political actors influence human beings ability to access water for their dietary and financial needs. Leading to the instability and turmoil of some nations and calls for increased political investment in better environmental efforts. The hope is that these repercussions eventually drive action that cultivates a world in which individuals will not have to fear how they will water the crops that feed them and provide them with a home. But rather, live in confidence knowing that their fundamental right to clean water is one that is protected and cannot be taken from them.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
This is discussed further in:
“Surviving Scarcity: Water and Future of the Middle East” - click here
“Water Scarcity” - click here
“What is water scarcity?” -click here
“What is drought?” - click here
“Yarmouk river - tensions and cooperations between Syria and Jordan” - click here
“Climate change in the Fertile Crescent and implications of the recent Syrian drought” -click here
“CIimate Change Impact on Yemen and Adaptation Strategies” - click here
“Yemen - Warring Parties Deepen Water Crisis” - click here
“Houthis Blockage Taizz While Attacking Ships Response to Israel Siege of Gaza””- click here
Written by Blaire Curley
Edited by Sophia Hernandez
